Batalia de la Philipi-Partea-2!

 1-Brutus chiar alunga flota lui Octavian impiedicand aprovizionarea acestora mai eficient .

2-Antonius il impiedica pe Brutus  sa comunice cu Cassius lucru ce creeaza panica .

3-Cassius crede ca Brutus a murit si se sinucide .

4-Antonius aduna fortele dezorganizate ale lui Octavian si incepe atacul asupra lui Brutus .

5-Brutus era un general cu experienta .

           1-A luptat alaturi de Pompey .

           2-Alaturi de Cezar in Spania .

           3-A fost guvernator in Galia reusind reforme bune-militare .

6-Antonius-stim cu toti !

7-Octavian deloc-experienta .

8-Cassius lupta alaturi de !

       1-Crassus la Carrahe .

       2-Cezar in Britania .

       3-Pompey in Siria .

9-Antonius propune lupta dar Brutus refuza pe motive bine-intemeiate.

       1-Aprovizionare mai buna .

       2-Accesul la Portul-Niapolis.

10-Antonius si Octavian  incearca sa o aduca pe Cleopatra alaturi de ei  dar flota egipteana nu poate pleca din Alexandria-cica probleme cu vremea .

11-Antonius reuseste sa il provoace pe Brutus la lupta .

          23-octombrie-42-I-HR. 

Donatia lui Marcus Antonius catre Cleopatra !

 1-Acest articol este copiat !

2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.

3-Marcus Antonius a gresit fatal cu acesta donatie!

4-Incepe un razboi fiind sau nefiind pregatit !

The Donations of Alexandria

Following his annexation of Armenia, Antony announced the divisions of his territories. With himself dressed as Dionysis and Cleopatra clad as Isis, he announced that their son Alexander Helios would rule Media and Parthia (which were not Roman lands) in addition to Armenia, his sister Cleopatra Selene would have Cyrenaica and Libya, Ptolemy Phildelphus would rule Syria and Cilicia. Cleopatra was declared Queen of Kings as ruler of Egypt, with Caesarion, who was declared a legitimate son and heir to Caesar. While passing on Roman territories to his children did not threaten Octavian, the legitimisation of Caesarion did. Octavian’s power base was built of his adoption by Caesar securing the loyalty of his legions, and to see this privilege instead transferred to a teenager who was the son of the richest woman in the world could make his position untenable.

Elected Consul again for 33 BC, Octavian opened the Senate with an attack on Antony and lambasting his plans to divvy out Rome’s eastern provinces. Antony sent details to Rome of his division of the territories to seek ratification from the Senate, which they refused. The years 33 and 32 BC saw the escalation of a propaganda war betwixt the duo. Octavian accused Antony of treason, and illegally retaining provinces that should be apportioned to Proconsuls by lot, as per Roman tradition. He had started wars with Armenia and Parthia without the consent of the Senate, and had executed Sextus Pompey without trial. Antony accused Octavian of being a social upstart, and forging his adoption papers by Caesar. Unsurprisingly, he also divorced Octavia so he could commit himself to his Queen.

The rift betwixt the pair saw around a third of the Senate head east to defect to Antony, including both of the Consuls for 32 BC. It was not all one-way traffic though, and two key deserters headed west, to Octavian, bringing with them something of immense value – knowledge of Antony’s will. Forcibly entering the Temple of the Vestal Virgins, where wills were stored, Octavian seized Antony’s will and read it aloud to the people of Rome. In it, Antony detailed how his sons would be apportioned Roman provinces to rule, while Alexandria would host a spectacular tomb for he and his Queen. Finally accepting that Antony had abandoned the ways of Rome and embraced those of Egypt, the Senate declared war.

Not wishing to be seen as perpetuating civil war, Octavian ensured that war was declared only against Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra had made for Ephesus, collecting his troops from across the east to amass the necessary legions there with which to cross the Adriatic and attack Rome. He gathered a vast fleet, with many Egyptian ships, moving first the Samos and then Athens, while his legions began arriving from Asia Minor.

Not wishing to be caught out, Octavian dispatched Agrippa with his fleet, and he swiftly captured the city of Methone. Sailing and raiding north, he next captured Corcyra (Corfu), allowing Octavian to occupy the island and use it as a forward naval base. Octavian’s political manoeuvring ensured Antony was denied the consulship which he was due to occupy in 31 BC, and as such he was now acting with no legal authority.

Finding the Adriatic well defended, Antony wintered at Patrae while his fleet sought sanctuary in the Ambracian Gulf, with his legions encamped at the promontory of Actium, protecting the opposite side of the gulf with a tower and troops. Rejecting Octavian’s proposals to convene, the first few months of 31 BC were largely without incident, save for Agrippa’s continued raids against the Greek cities allied to Octavian. In August Octavian’s legions began landing on the north side of the strait, yet still Antony would not be coaxed out. Octavian’s cavalry skirmishes against Antony’s northern forces caused him to abandon his hold there, amassing all his legions at the southern camp.

Cleopatra now advised Antony on a defensive strategy, garrisoning the towns while returning most of the fleet to Alexandria. As it was largely an Egyptian fleet, he had little chance of preventing this. Learning of this, Octavian was inclined to allow Antony to sail out of the gulf, and then attack him. Agrippa, however, disagreed, and persuaded his friend and patron to give battle when they attempted to leave. Thus on September 2, 31 BC, the fleets and Antony and Octavian prepared for their final showdown to decide who would be the master of the Roman Republic at the Battle of Actium.

Dacia intre 450-1000-D-HR-PARTEA-1!

 1-E greu de facut un articol pentru aceasta perioada sustin !

2-Voi incerca sa prezint propria versiune de atunci sau din aceea perioada .

3-Pericolul-Roma a trecut teoretic .

4-Nici o legiune nu a ramas in zona si mai ales dupa 450-D-HR!

5-Atacurile barbare si influenta lor era tot mai puternica in aceasta perioada .

6-Comertul care era principala sursa pentru economia apartinea lor adica il controlau .

7-Granitele erau nesigure .

8-Armata era dezorganizata .

9-Dupa un timp prezenta barbata a devenit o necesitate .

10-Prezenta lor predomina si in conducerea-militara .

11-Nici vorba de un stat-militar .

12-Puterea de alta-data s-a dus.

Luptele duse de al-2-triumvirat de la Roma !

 1-Acest articol este copiat !

2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.

“Fortune favours the bold.”

Following the defeat of Sextus Pompey, Lepidus was first to land troops on Sicily and capture several major towns. Feeling that Octavian treated him as a subordinate rather than an equal, he made to claim Sicily for himself, increasing his fiefdom while expelling Octavian. He then aimed to negotiate to hand Octavian Sicily and Africa, while being restored to Gaul and Hispania himself. His legions, however, were weary of fighting, and lured by Octavian’s promises of payment, began defecting to the young Caesar on mass. Lepidus surrendered, and although Octavian allowed him to retain the title of Pontifex Maximus (Head of priests), he was ejected from the triumvirate. Not wanting to upset the Italians again, Octavian settled his veterans outside of the peninsular this time, while also returning to their masters 30,000 slaves who had escaped to join Sextus Pompey. Lepidus’ public career over, he was now effectively exiled to his island villa at Cape Circei. He lived for another 23 years, seeing his son executed for an assassination plot against Octavian, and allowed to periodically return to Rome to partake in senatorial visits, though he largely faded into obscurity. The Roman Republic was now clearly divided betwixt Octavian in the west and Antony in the east.

In the east, Antony was presented with the ideal opportunity to interfere in Parthia when the ever-turbulent royal court was the King Orodes II murdered and replaced by his son Phraates IV. When he realised Octavian’s promised legions would not materialise, he turned to another major source of manpower in the east – Cleopatra’s Egypt. Wintering in Antioch in 37 BC, Antony amassed a huge army of 16 legions and 40,000 auxiliaries, with a total force of 200,000 men – more than double the size of Crassus’ force which had been annihilated at Carrhae, and more than treble the size of armies of Sulla and Lucullus which triumphed against Mithridates. The sheer size of his force declared an intention to conquer Parthia, or at least occupy their capital of Ecbactana and demand vassalage.

His campaign began well, moving to Armenia and removing the Parthian vassal king, restoring the buffer territory to the Roman sphere of influence. Pressing east, he captured Iberia, and forced its king to attack Albania, making both Roman protectorates, and expanding the republic to the Caspian Sea once more. He then marched south into media, entering Parthian territory, determined to force a pitched battle. The Parthians, though, had no intention of proffering pitched battle. After their smug supremacy that followed Carrhae, Bassus had restored Roman pride in defeating their forces that had looked to annex Roman Persia. They were now well aware of the legions’ strength, and knew that it took a very particular set of circumstances to defeat them – namely fighting on a large open plain, and wearing them down with a war of attrition. If they found a capable Roman commander who was unwilling to march across open plains and provide them with such an opportunity though, they would be severely hampered. If the legions could lure them into close combat, then their cavalry superiority could be negated and the Romans would have the advantage, as Bassus had demonstrated.

The refusal to fight saw Antony push ever further into Parthia territory, and soon he repeated Crassus’ mistake in not securing his supply route. Leaving his logistics train behind his army under the protection of two legions, the Parthians seized this opportunity to overwhelm the detachment and choke of Antony’s army. Antony looked to continue his campaign undeterred, though with supplies dwindling and his force failing to capture a regional capital, he began his retreat in October before winter could set in.

His retreat turned into a disaster, as his demoralised and hungry troops were harassed by the Parthians every step of the way. Struggling through mountainous terrain, the legions left a scorching hot summer for a bitterly cold winter in the inhospitable land. Around 25,000 died while Antony was retreating to reach Armenia, with his legions fighting 18 battles with the Parthians in one month as the king looked to cut off their escape. Reaching the buffer zone, he then quick-marched back to Syria to find refuge behind the Euphrates, though another 8,000 men died during this march. Around 80,000 men had died during Antony’s failed Parthian campaign – it was not as disastrous as Napoleon’s retreat from Russia, though is certainly similar in terms of retreating from hostile enemy territory, and losing a war despite not losing a battle

With his reputation severely tarnished back in Rome, Octavian launched his smear campaign against Antony in earnest. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals, abandoning his wife in Rome while he pursued his affair with Cleopatra in Alexandria. Worst of all he was accused of ‘going native’, turning from a proud Roman to an Egyptian. Cleopatra was portrayed as a foreign witch who has seduced him, and when Antony was repeatedly summoned to Rome, he declined every time to remain in Alexandria. Octavian declared that the civil wars were over, and that he would renounce his place as a triumvir if Antony would do the same. Antony, obviously, refused.

Antony again invaded Armenia in 34 BC, capturing the kingdom and naming his son with Cleopatra, Alexander Helios, the king. Returning to Alexandria, he held a triumph through the streets, outraging the Senate back in Rome. Gathering the city’s population around he and his family, Antony had an important announcement to make – he was formally ending his alliance with Octavian. As Octavian’s attacks on Antony increased in the Senate, numerous senators began heading east to defect to Antony. Octavian, however, had a trump card, and would soon make an announcement that would rock the Roman world, and turn popular support irrevocably against Antony.

Batalia de la Philipi-Partea-1!

 1-3-Octombrie-42-I-HR.

2-23-Octombrie-42-I-HR.

3-As spune ca Phlipi a fost pentru !

          1-Razbunarea lui Cezar .

          2-Consolidarea celui de-al-2-triumvirat 

          3-Anexarea tuturor legiunilor sub conducerea lui Antonius,Octavian,Lepudus.

         4-Anexarea tuturor provinciilor sub conducerea celor 3 de mai sus.

   4-Antonius-Octavian aveau 19 legiuni sub conducere .

5-Brutus-Cassius-15 legiuni sub conducere.

6-Antonius ajunge primul la Philipi pentru a da piept cu Brutus si Cassius.

        11-legiuni avea Antonius sub conducerea sa.

7-Octavian ajunge la cateva zile.

         8-legiuni avea acesta sub conducerea sa.

8-Brutus si Cassius se separa in 2 tabere dar bine legate !

9-Antonius ataca tabara lui Cassius .

          1-castiga lupta si il obliga pe Cassius sa se sinucida crezand ca si Brutus a patit la fel .

10-Brutus ataca tabara lui Octavian si il invinge .

          1-Octavian se retrage momentan .

Alexandru-Cel-Mare-Batalia de la Issus!

1-333-I-HR!

2-Alexandru Macedon vs Darius-3.

3- Alex-Macedon dispunea de 40 mii-soldati .

4-Darius-3 dispunea de 100 -mii-soldati .

5-Darius cunoscand slaba pregatire pe care o avea armata lui incearca atacunri viclene dar nimic .

6-Alex-Macedon profita din plin de o pregatire superioara a trupelor sale si respinge orice atac.

7-Alex-Macedon arata inca o dovada de inteligenta militara !

          1-Profita de terenul favorabil pentru falancele lui .

          2-Cavaleria mult superioara .

         3-Taie complet avantajul carelor de lupta-persoana prin o raspandire a trupelor pe campul de lupta .

8-Darius nu a avut nici o sansa in aceasta batalia!

          1-armata dezorganizata total .

          2-lipsa-antrenamente .

          3-terenul care nu permitea nici o manevra pentru o asa forta-numeria.

9-3000-5000 de soldati pierde-Alexandru-Macedon .

10-Peste 25000 soldati pierde Darius plus sprijinul multor generali .

11-O ALTA  DOVADA DE GENIUL NUMIT-ALEX-MACEDON !

Lupta pentru mostenirea lui Iulius-Cezar !

 1-Acest articol este copiat .

2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.

3-Lupta pentru mostenirea lui Cezar s-a dat intre !

              1-Marcus Antonius.

              2-Octavian-nepotul sau adoptat ca fiu!

             3-Senatul care era aliat cu Brutus si Cassius .

“In the thick of the fight, when the eagle-bearer of his legion was sorely wounded, he shouldered the eagle and carried it for some time.”

Caesar’s adoption of Octavian immediately made him one of the richest men in the republic, in theory. He still had to access his vast fortune though, which meant the Senate had to release the funds from Caesar’s will to allow it to be honoured. Against the advice of Cassius Longinus and Cicero, Brutus agreed for Caesar to receive a full state funeral. The Liberatores looked forward to Rome resuming operating as a functional republic.

Antony was allowed to preside over the funeral, and was soon reminding the people of all Caesar had bequeathed to them. He held aloft the blood-stained toga, and then proceeded to produce an effigy of Caesar, explaining the blows he took from the various Liberatores in front of the funeral pyre. Worked into a frenzy, the mob soon began pelting the Optimate senators with missiles, and hurling debris onto the funeral pyre, which soon blazed out of control and burnt down the Forum. Panicked, the Liberatores began fleeing the city and the fury of the mob. Antony offered Cassius and Brutus roles procuring grain from Sicily and Asia, but they refused and fled for Greece instead. Cleopatra, who had been portrayed by the Liberatores as a corrupting eastern witch, took the opportunity to return to Alexandria.

Antony abolished the dictatorship, earning his rule the legitimacy of the Senate, while appropriating much of Caesar’s estate that had been bequeathed to Octavian. Antony married his daughter to the son of Lepidus, affirming the alliance betwixt them. Octavian landed in Brundisium and was hailed as the new Caesar, and immediately commanded the war chest present with the legions there as he headed for Rome. On his march to Rome more of Caesar’s veterans came over to him, and he had raised a legion by the time he reached the city.

Octavian found himself blocked by Antony in looking to claim his portion of Caesar’s estate. Antony had lost much public support though for blocking the deification of Caesar, while Octavian soon found the Optimates supporting him as they, and Cicero in particular, saw him as a boy who would be easy to manipulate against Antony. Octavian began to borrow heavily so he could honour the will of Caesar in apportioning the monies he had promise to the population, gaining him huge public support. He also enlisted the support of Cicero, who began using his speeches in the Senate to attack Antony, arguing for the funds to be released for Caesar’s will to be honoured.

Despite lacking any legal authority, Octavian saw increasing numbers of Caesar’s veterans declare their loyalty to him. With public opinion turning against him, Antony attempted to secure a prominent governorship for when his consulship ended. He and Dolabella were elected as Proconsuls for Macedon and Syria respectively, though Antony insisted on being closer to Rome and thus having Cisalpine Gaul, currently under the leadership of Decimus Brutus, one of the Liberatores. When Decimus refused to abandon his position, Antony marched five legions north and besieged him at Mutina. The Senate had the pretext they needed for war, though they did not have the legions they needed without Octavian. Ratifying Octavian’s extraordinary command as Propraetor, they marched north to confront Antony.

Antony was reluctant to lift the siege, believing he could emulate Caesar with a numerically superior army approaching. Antony’s legions ambushed those under the Consul Pansa at the Battle of Forum Gallorum, mortally wounding their leader, though he was then attacked by the co-consul Hirtius before they could complete the rout, and were forced to fall back. After his losses, Antony now aimed to avoid pitched battled and just maintain his siege. Hirtius led a bold attack into Antony’s camp, but when Antony’s legionaries counter-attacked, the Consul was killed in the fighting. Octavian fought with his men to recover the body, including carrying back the legionary eagle (aquila) himself, though he could not keep hold of the camp.

Being the ranking officer now on the field, Octavian was in control of all of the Senate’s eight legions. When the Senate ordered that command be given to Brutus, he refused on the grounds they would not fight for a Liberatore. Though neither side had been decisively beaten, Antony concluded there was little point in maintaining the siege, and thus ordered a night march north so he could flee to Transalpine Gaul with his legions, reuniting with the forces under Lepidus.

The Senate was delighted, despite the death of both Consuls, and immediately planned to pursue Antony into war, ending the threat from Caesar’s lapdog. Mutina marked Octavian’s promotion from being an inexperienced teenager relying on an adopted name, to being a match for Mark Antony. The Senate’s belief that Octavian could be easily manipulated was about to be proved disastrously wrong, as the young Caesar’s priority was not in supporting the Senate, but in delivering a reckoning against the Liberatores – something in which he and Antony shared common ground.

Alexandru cel Mare-Batalia de la Gaugamela

 1-Toata cariera-militara  lui Alex-Macedon a fost fabuloasa .

2-Personal consider aceasta batalie ca fiind nr-1 pentru El si Macedonia.

3-331-I-HR.

4-Alexandru-Macedon vs Darius.

5-Grecia vs Persia .

6-Grecia-45-47-mii-soldati.

7-Persia-100-150 mii-soldati .

8-Alexandru-Macedon ataca pe flancuri si surprinde uriasa armata -persana.

9-Lupta a fost crancena .

10-Cratarius si Ptolomeu il ajuta enorm pe Alex-Macedon .

11-Carele lui Darius nu au putut fi scoase in evidenta .

12-Greci sunt organizati formidabil -disciplina de top .

13-Greci -4000 de morti .

14-Persi -50 mii de morti -numarul exact nu se stie .

15-Lupta aceasta a reprezentat inceputul sfarsitului lui Darius !

Moartea lui Cezar !

1-Acest articol este copiat !

2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea-nr 1!

 “Beware the Ides of March.”

On 15 March 44 BC, Julius Caesar headed to the Senate to open the day’s debates, undeterred by a previous prophecy of the date and unwilling to deploy his Spanish bodyguard in the city, where he felt safe. Mark Antony heard the night before of the planned assassination from a terrified conspirator, and headed to intercept Caesar, though the plotters had anticipated this and had Antony detained. When Caesar entered the Senate, Cimber approached him and pleaded for his brother to be recalled from exile. Caesar waved him away, but was shocked when Cimber grabbed a handful of his toga – touching a Consul was an offence punishable by death. “Why, this is violence!”, cried Caesar as the assassins gathered around him.

Now Casca revealed a dagger, thrusting at Caesar’s neck, only to score a glancing blow as Caesar grabbed him and yelled: “Casca, you villain, what are you doing?” “Help, brothers!”, shouted Casca, at which the rest of them lunged forward, even injuring one another in their fervour. Caesar attempted to flee, but was becoming weakened and slipped on his own blood. Seeing Brutus approach, Caesar initially thought his friend was coming to his rescue. When he saw he too was holding a dagger, he said: “Eh tu, Brute?” (“And you, Brutus?”). In a final act of defiance, Caesar threw his toga over his head, so his attackers could not look upon his face. They continued stabbing him as he lay on the floor, with around 60 attackers taking part. Caesar had suffered 23 stab wounds, only one of which had been fatal.

With the distraction of the assassination, Mark Antony was able to slip away and flee the city dressed as a slave, fearing there would be a great Populare purge. The self-styled Liberatores marched through the streets proudly, declaring: “People of Rome, we are once again free!” Rather than the expected jubilation, they were met with silence and shuttered windows. This silence soon turned to outrage, the people of Rome filled with anguish that a small number of self-appointed aristocrats would have killed their hero, and the Liberatores were soon barricading themselves on the Capitoline Hill for their own safety. Cicero led praise of the Liberatores, and was aggrieved that he had not been asked to join them.

When the anticipated bloodbath against Caesar’s supporters did not materialise, Antony swiftly returned to Rome and, in his role as sole Consul, took command of the treasury. Caesar’s widow Calpurnia presented him with Caesar’s papers and property, clearly indicating he was now the leader of the Populares. Caesar’s Master of Horse Lepidus marched 6,000 troops to the city to defend the Populares, planning to storm the Capitoline, though Antony preferred compromise. Two days after Caesar’s death, Antony met with the Senate to agree and amnesty for his killers, while his own office was ratified with Dolabella appointed co-consul. Originally throwing his lot in with the Optimates, Dolabella promptly switched sides when Antony proffered him the opportunity to lead the Parthian expedition.

Octavian was undergoing military training across the Adriatic in Illyria when news reached him of Caesar’s death. His officers advised him to seek refuge in Macedonia until it was clear how events would play out in Rome. Octavian, however, was intrigued, knowing Caesar had left no male heir to his vast estates and title. It seemed a long shot, but he decided to ignore their advice and make haste to Rome to see if there would be any benefit for him.

Four days after his death, the crowds of Rome gathered outside the Temple of the Vestal Virgins to hear the reading of the will of Gaius Julius Caesar. There were the expected beneficiaries, with Antony receiving a huge cash inheritance. There were the signs of his misplaced confidence in his allies, with Brutus receiving a similar inheritance. There were cries of applause as a generous amount was awarded to every citizen in Rome, while several of his luxurious properties were handed over to become public spaces. Then there was a gasp – for Julius Caesar left the rest of his behemoth estate, and posthumously adopted as his son, the hitherto unknown 19-year-old Octavian.

Cezar-Antony si razboiul civil contra lui Pompey !

 1-Acest articol este copiat !

2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.

The triumph which he celebrated for this victory displeased the Romans beyond anything. For he had not defeated foreign generals, or barbarian kings, but had destroyed the children and family of one of the greatest men of Rome."

When Caesar returned to Rome, it was with the promise of spectacular triumph. Or rather, four of them. Caesar held an unprecedented four triumphs in the space of a month – it must have been a fantastic time to be a Roman (albeit briefly!), with the usually rare carnivals, with lavish gifts given out amidst the party atmosphere, being held almost weekly throughout the autumn of 46 BC. A triumph could only be held for victory over a foreign enemy, not for a civil war (hence there were no Social War triumphs). Thus Caesar’s triumphs were ostensibly for his victories over Vercingetorix and the Gauls, over Ptolemy XIII of Egypt, over Pharnaces II of Pontus, and over King Juba of Numidia, with little mention made of Caesar’s fighting with the Optimates resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Romans throughout this period. There was no triumph held for Caesar’s campaigns in either Greece or Hispania. Despite the general mood of celebration, there was still irritation among the Senate at his jubilance following his return from Hispania, particularly given his campaign there had been only against Romans, and against the sons of one of Rome’s greatest generals.

Caesar’s triumphs surpassed anything that had gone before. Some 400 lions fought in gladiator contests, a basin in the Field of Mars was flooded to facilitate a naval battle, at the Circus Maximus, two armies each 2,000 strong, with 200 cavalry and 20 war elephants, fought to the death. Egypt’s deposed queen Arsinoe IV was paraded in chains, winning plaudits for her dignity.

Caesar next set out bringing through his ambitious legislative reforms, including reducing the grain dole, and limiting senatorial status to those of equestrian rank and above. Professional guilds were outlawed, governors were given term limits, and debt was restricted, erasing around a quarter of it. Entry to Rome for carts was prohibited during the day, allowing more space for people while restricting traders to unloading their goods at night. The Forum of Caesar was built, and he set about allocating land to 15,000 of his veterans.

His most important change would be to the Roman calendar, introducing the Julian calendar, which is still largely how our calendars operate today (when the Gregorian calendar was introduced in 1582, there were only ten days added to the previous calendar to bring it into alignment). The Roman calendar had been based on the moon and set by the priests, meaning the seasons could end up wildly out of sync – it could be snowing in June, with a heatwave in January! Caesar’s calendar was based on his observances with the astrologers of Egypt, and was based around the sun. The Julian Calendar was 365.25 days, with a leap year every fourth year. This allowed farmers to plan their crop rotations around the calendar more effectively. Three extra months were added to 46 BC, with the Julian Calendar taking effect at the beginning of 45 BC.

Further reforms saw the introduction of a police force, the urban cohort, and the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. The Latin rights were extended across the Roman world, as he sought to forge the republic into a single, unified entity rather than a disparate collection of different nationalities. The tax farming system was abolished, with cities granted greater autonomy to just pay a tribute instead. Caesar planned to create a new Temple of Mars, a new theatre, and a library to rival that of Alexandria. Ostia was to be converted into a major port, with a canal cut through the Isthmus of Corinth. Caesar began mobilising legions for his campaigns against the Dacians on the Danube, and for a retaliatory invasion of the Parthians to avenge Carrhae.

The Senate bestowed a variety of honours on Caesar, including renaming the month of Quinctilis “July” in his honour, while coins were minted in his image. Throughout the civil war and his time in Rome, Caesar switched betwixt various officer of Consul, Dictator, and others, with the Senate eventually naming him “Father of the Fatherland”, and “imperator”. He had the right to speak first at every Senate meeting.

Antony had initially been elected to be Governor of Italia by Caesar, though in his absence he was soon making a botch job of managing Rome. Antony opposed debt relief, and when he unleashed legionaries on the Forum to maintain order, the city descended into anarchy, necessitating Caesar’s return. Antony used his powers as Plebeian Tribune to oppose Caesar’s elevation of his rival Dolabella, and later used his role as auger to insist the omens were against it. Antony was stripped of his official positions, and remained in Rome as a private citizen while Caesar campaigned in Africa and Hispania. Antony divorced his second wife during the Dolabella scandal, and married Fulvia, whom he had been having an affair with for the last decade and who had been previously married to Pulcher and Curio, being widowed since the latter’s death in Africa. Despite the growing rift, the two were reconciled in 45 BC when Antony was elected as Caesar’s junior Consul. Caesar planned to have Antony remain in Rome to manage Italia while he campaigned against the Parthians.

When Caesar was granted his own cult, Antony was chosen as his high priest, days after Caesar had been declared Dictator for Life. During one of the festivals, Antony attempted to place a diadem on Caesar’s head, though the crowd would boo when he dead. Cheering when he removed it, Antony tried twice more, but the crowd again would boo him. It is unclear whether Caesar was trying to show he would not be a monarch, by ushering Antony away with the crown, or whether he was hoping for the crowd to accept him as a monarch, and merely adapted his performance when they did not.

Given his political leniency to his rivals and his support by the common people, Caesar had no open political opponents in Rome. The Optimates thus began conspiring in secret, with Antony rejecting an early offer of joining them. Chief among the conspirators were Marcus Brutus, who Caesar had forgiven after Pharsalus and, being the son of Caesar’s long-term mistress Servilia, was rumoured to be his bastard son. Also among the leaders was Cassius Longinus, the surviving legate from Crassus’ disastrous defeat at Carrhae. They believed that Caesar was installing himself as a monarch, that Rome would return to tyranny, and Brutus’ family had a history of tyrant-killing, so he made a suitable leader. Initially planning a great purge of the Populares, Brutus insisted that it just be Caesar, for their actions to be legitimate. Their plans were soon put in motion when they learnt of the planned Parthian campaign, which would remove Caesar from Rome for years, and thus they prepared to strike in the spring of 44 BC.