1-Acest articol este copiat !
2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.
“A war without cause.”
While Pompey was still acclaimed for his military exploits in the east, and Caesar was rising high on his conquest of Gaul, Crassus was left the odd triumvir out. His most recent military exploit had been quelling the Spartacus revolt two decades earlier, an supporting Sulla at Colline Gate a decade before that. Jealous of his peers’ success, he looked east to ensure his own legacy. Syria promised ample wealth too, with the Parthian Empire known to be rich, and he expected an easy campaign given the straightforward Roman victories over numerically superior eastern armies, such as Pontus. The return of his successful son Publius also encouraged him to strike out, wanting to grow his reputation following his service under Caesar.
A war of succession had erupted in Parthia betwixt Orodes II and Mithridates IV, with Orodes initially making his brother a governor as a compromise. Another clash saw Mithridates flee to Syria, requesting the aid of the Romans, though the governor instead chose to interfere in the Egyptian succession crisis. Gabinius still harboured hopes of supporting Mithridates, though the would-be king struck out on his own, invading Babylonia. Replacing Gabinius, Crassus moved to support Mithridates, keen for him to become a Roman vassal, though dithered by the Balikh River. The Parthian commander Surena used the delay to besiege Seleucia and capture Mithridates, who he then executed. Orodes now moved to invade Armenia in retaliation against Roman interference.
Crassus had used his wealth to raise seven legions in Syria, around 40,000 men, as well as 4,000 light infantry, plus 3,000 cavalry, subsidised by the 1,000 Gallic cavalry brought back by Publius. He was advised to attack through Armenia to drive out the Parthians, with the king offering him an additional 40,000 reinforcements if he did, but Crassus refused, opting to take the most direct route instead – across the unforgiving desert of Mesopotamia. Orodes continued with his infantry into Armenia, while dispatching Surena with a screening force of 9,000 horse archers and 1,000 cataphracts (armoured horses) to follow the Romans, and delay them until he could arrive with the main force. Crassus trusted his guide, though he was in the pay of the Parthians, and soon the legions were marching across the desert in anticipation of a disorganised army.
It is hard to imagine how hellish it must have been marching across the Syrian desert in May in full legionary armour. There was no shade, and the sun was relentless, with the soldiers baking inside their armour. Dehydration was a constant source of irritation, and then danger. Legions usually march at a mile per 15 minutes, though maintaining that in the suffering heat must have been impossible. They had not followed the rivers, and it must have taken extraordinary discipline to not drink your whole water skin early, then find yourself left without any liquid. The march across the desert became a brutal slog. Anyone who has suffered dehydration (such as running a marathon on a hot day!) may be able to share some empathy with Crassus’ legions, though I cannot imagine there is much that comes close to the hell they went through.
Crassus’ legions came across Surena’s army at the town of Carrhae, and panic immediately set in. One legate advised to draw up for battle, though Crassus opted to advance in squares to protect his flanks. Coming to a stream, Crassus intended to set up camp, though Publius convinced him to attack. The Parthians intimidated the Romans with loud drums, while their cataphracts covered their armour and then revealed it simultaneously, the sun shining off them making them a resplendent sight.
Soon Parthian horse archers were peppering the Romans with arrows, with their eastern bows much more powerful than the Mediterranean counterparts as their arrows punched through Roman shields, nailing shields to the arms of many and nailing the feet of some to the floor. A charge by Crassus’ skirmishers was driven off, and every time the legionaries attempted to close with the horse archers, they merely wheeled away and retreated. At first the legionaries would run after them, though they soon learnt it was a feigned retreat, allowing the expert horsemen to perform the Parthian shot, where you turn on the saddle and loose a shot behind you while riding away (from which the modern term “parting shot” derives).
As the Romans resorted to the testudo formation to counter the arrows, Surena sent his cataphracts to charge into the now immobile formation, causing chaos and heavy casualties. When the Romans attempted to charge them, the Parthians returned to the horse archers. Crassus hoped he could maintain the march and that the Parthians would run out of arrows, though Surena had brought a supply train of camels to bring fresh arrows for his men. Crassus sent Publius with his Gallic cavalry, 500 archers and eight cohorts to capture the supply train, but once they were far enough away from the main army, the cataphracts charged them. They made their stand on a hill, where Publius committed suicide as most of his men were massacred, with just 500 taken alive. The first news Crassus received was the jubilant Parthians parading the head of his son.
Now surrounded by archers and charges from the cataphracts, a demoralised Crassus managed to retreat to the town of Carrhae. The attacks continued until nightfall, and four cohorts which lost their way in the dark were annihilated, while some 4,000 wounded legionaries were left behind to be finished off by the Parthians. Crassus now faced mutiny, and when Surena offered to parley he had to accept. Surena offered the chance for the Romans to retreat, abandoning their claims east of the Euphrates, but when a Parthian grabbed Crassus’ reins, violence broke out. Most of his generals were killed, with Crassus supposedly taken back to the capital, Seleucia. The “man who shits gold” was supposedly executed by having molten gold poured down his throat. A Roman prisoner was dressed as a woman and marched through the streets of the city in a mock triumph.
Crassus’ defeat was humiliating for Rome, especially the capture of many of his legionary eagles (aquila). Surena was thanked by a jealous Orodes by having the general executed, then taking command of his troops following his success in Armenia. He then launched an unsuccessful invasion of Syria, the first of many conflicts betwixt the two powers. Rome came to realise that her legions could not fight effectively against Parthian cavalry. Longinus, one of Crassus’ legates, was successful in leading 1,000 men back to Syria, and would help in repulsing the Parthian retaliatory invasion.
While many Romans died, many were also captured. Some 10,000 were sent east, to the plains of Margiana, to defend Parthia from their Indian and Scythian neighbours. After being annexed by a neighbouring power, these legionaries found themselves ultimately serving under the Xiongnu, with reports of their testudo formation being used at the Battle of Zhizhi against the Han dynasty. There is a town in western China today called “Liqian”, where the populace have more Caucasian DNA than expected, and some hypothesise that the survivors of Carrhae founded this town, naming it “Legion”. In this age of air travel and open borders, it is difficult to imagine how despondent one would feel in antiquity to find yourself a Roman in China, beyond the known world. Would any of them see home again? With thousands of miles separating them, it would be unlikely.
The destruction of Crassus’ legions, following decades of Roman supremacy, shocked the republic. It was a humiliating blow, and again the city was in mourning for the loss of so many of her sons. However the most profound death was that of Crassus himself. For now the triumvirate, which had hung by a thread, was dead, and there was no third party to quell the escalating tensions betwixt Pompey and Caesar that would lead to war.
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