1-Acest articol este copiat !
2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.
“It is noteworthy that Aristotle ascribes to Carthage a position among the Greek states, because the Greeks firmly believed that they alone had the ability to found 'poleis', whereas the barbarians used to live in tribal societies ('ethne'). It is therefore remarkable that Aristotle maintained that the Carthaginians were the only non-Greek people who had created a 'polis'. Like Crete and Sparta, Aristotle considers Carthage as an outstanding example of an ideal society.”
Before diving into the narrative of the First Punic War betwixt Rome and Carthage, it is useful to understand the similarities – and differences – of the two great powers. This was to be a series of huge war betwixt (nominally) elected governments, committing their huge resources into defeating a rival. It was not war fought on a whim of a tyrant, with hundreds of thousands suffering and dying because their monarch ordered it – as Alexander the Great’s campaign into Persia had been, as had the response to his invasion by the Achaemenid Empire. Both the peoples of Rome and Carthage would have a huge say in shaping the course of the wars, and the cultures, militaries and governments of both powers would play a key role in deciding the outcomes.
Rome was a land power, establishing its control over central Italy and now expanding along the length of the peninsula. The Roman Republic was an agrarian society, raising its power through its nation of citizen farmers who then go on to form its military. Utilising the arable land of Italy and dominating its neighbours through a series of alliances and wars allowed Rome to mobilise the vast manpower reserves of Italy into its army. Italy could support large populations, and Rome’s complex diplomatic relations tied most of Italy to it as allies. There were varying degrees of loyalty, usually resting on how long those people had been allied to Rome. Those like the Campanians and the Latins were fervently loyal, while recently subdued peoples like the Samnites and the Etruscans were likely to revolt. However, Rome spread colonies throughout these territories to spread its influence and reduce the chance of rebellion, and by gradually spreading rights to them, incorporated them into the Roman world.
Rome had various levels of citizenship, with its own citizenship closely guarded, and allies more likely to receive Latin rights or citizenship without the right to vote. Citizens would be split into a variety of “tribes” (like voting colleges), which would elect its key positions. The state was dominated by the Senate, an oligarchy of Rome’s most prestigious aristocrats with the most august lineage, and wealthy enough to sit in the house. However, it was still possible to be wealthy and not be a Senator, as family history counted for more than money. The Patrician class traced their lineage back to the refugees under Aeneas who founded Rome, the “middle class” were the Equestrians, who would compose the Roman cavalry (hence the term today), with the lowest class being the Plebeians, though all of these classes could work their way into the Senate. Rome’s military and politics were intertwined. A political career could be built through military success, brilliant oratory in the Forum, success in legal representation (most trials depended on oratory as evidence was often lacking), or astute administration. Plebs could start their career serving as Tribune of the Plebs, a representative office whose key benefit was being able to “veto” any decision of the Senate. Patricians and Equestrians would likely start as junior military tribunes. The next ranks would be as Quaestor (an administrative role, like mayor), then Praetor (essentially governing a province – though Rome did not ostensibly have any overseas provinces until after the First Punic War, with Sicily the first), of which there were eight, and then Consul (similar to president or prime minister), of which there were two. Each role had a one-year term limit, though it was possible to extend the imperium of the role to serve as a Propraetor or Proconsul until an activity was complete, ie. a Consul reaching the end of his term while still conducting operations in war could become a Proconsul, maintaining the same powers until the war is over. Intermittently, senior senators could serve as legates (legion commander), and Consulars (ex-Consuls) could become Censors (those responsible for taking a Census). When singular command was needed, a Dictator could be elected to serve for six months, with the Master of Horse as his adjutant.
The Roman military was the legions, comprised of its citizen farmers and allied Italians – with Italian allies making up around 60% of Rome’s armies. The youngest would be the Velites, who would advance and throw three javelins before battle. They were then followed by the Hastati, who wore light armour and fought with a large shield and short sword (likely the Greek xiphos, as the Romans did not adopt the gladius until their clashes with the Spanish in the Second Punic War) and two further javelins. Next up were the experiences soldiers, who were better armoured and had longer, thrusting spears, first the Princeps and then the Triarii. This maniple system allowed the Roman legions a great deal of flexibility, allowing them to replace beleaguered troops with fresh ones as battle raged on. The system utilised the best aspects of melee fighting without abandoning missile weapons to weaken the enemy too. Citizens provided their own arms and supplied, and campaigning was mostly seasonal so they could return for the harvest. Rome was truly a martial society, where its citizens not only knew how to fight, but expected to fight. Troops were formed into legions of 4,200 men, with Roman campaigns traditionally seeing two legions raised and dispatched to fight. When more troops were needed, a Consular army of four legions under one Consul would be dispatched.
Far from being an agrarian land-based society, Carthage was a naval power based on trade. From it’s base in Africa (modern-day Tunis), the city of Carthage – which had descended from the Phoenicians – now controlled western Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, much of the southern coast of Spain and Portugal, and had the tribes of Libya, Mauritania (Morocco) and Numidia (Algeria) locked firmly into alliances. Carthaginian citizens only served in the military in times of crisis, and their default setting was the hire mercenary armies to do their fighting. Carthaginian politicians did not serve in the military, unlike Rome, though leading politicians could favour their family members in leading military positions (as the Barcids did). Despite its lack of a formal army, Carthage had regularly used its military to press its imperial agenda, and did have a select core of citizens who served in its armies. The “Sacred Band of Carthage” were a professional band of citizen soldiers who had fought in Sicily, though after reverses against the Greeks on the island, the use of auxiliaries had become more the norm. As such, a typical Carthaginian army included only a small core of Carthaginians, with the majority comprised of Libyan spearmen, Numidian cavalry, Balearic slingers, Celtiberian and Gallic infantry, and many more – an eclectic mix of soldiers. There was no uniformity forced on the soldiers, although mutinies were rare. Livy described Hannibal’s army in the Second Punic War as “a hotch-potch of the riff-raff of all nationalities.” Carthage was particularly brutal to failed general though, often voting to execute those who lost a battle, often by crucifixion. In contrast, Carthage’s navy was one of the largest and most experienced in the Mediterranean, fielding hundreds of huge warships with crews adept at complicated manoeuvres. The navy offered stable employment to Carthaginian citizens, and in turn ensured the trade that made the city thrive. Before the First Punic War, Rome had no navy, and would only gain one by reverse-engineering Carthaginian ships.
Carthaginian Government was essentially a cabal of the most successful merchants, who formed an oligarchy. There was still importance in heritage, with some prominent families tracing their lineage back to the city’s founders, and most in the upper echelons of society being of Phoenician decent – though many of mixed heritage could succeed too. After defeat at the Battle of Himera in the First Sicilian War, Carthage had changed to be more a representative Government and less of an oligarchy. Two judges headed the government, similar to Roman Consuls though without any military involvement – this did mean that generals did not have a fixed time limit on their role, ensuring more consistency. Trials and assemblies held much power, though Carthage’s highest military institution was the “One Hundred and Four”, a council of elders who oversaw generals and the spending of revenue. Aristotle praised the Carthaginians in being the only “barbarians” (non-Greeks) to have achieved republican government. In some respects, with its better split of powers, the Carthaginian government was more democratic than the Roman one.
Carthaginian society was divided into various levels of citizenship, though similarly to Rome, its own citizenship was quite restrictive. While foreigners could work, achieve, or most likely buy their way into Carthaginian citizenship, it was rolled out with more reluctance than Roman citizenship, and to far less people, being largely confined to the city itself and its richest merchants based abroad. While foreign allies would compose the majority of the Carthaginian army, those frontline troops had very little hope of achieving Carthaginian citizenship – Carthage was happy to maintain these states as allies, and thus the people would largely remain as denizens to their ruler, in contrast to Rome’s Italian allies who, even though they may not enjoy full citizenship, did receive a measure of citizenship and certain rights with that. These two powers had many similarities, but many differences, and when they thus came to clash over Sicily in the First Punic War, the outcome was far from certain.
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