1-Acest articol este copiat .
2-Istoria ramane pasiunea mea nr-1.
3-Gaius-Marius.
Fall of the Republic (Part VII)
“At the height of fame and fortune.”
While 100 BC was noticed at the time for the record unprecedented fifth successive consulship of Gaius Marius, a far more important event was taking place. Aurelia Cotta, a pretty young patrician who had been inundated with suitors, had followed the advice of her uncle, Publius Rutilius Rufus, in choosing her own husband. She thus chose the handsome, although relatively poor, son of Gaius Julius Caesar (not that one!), whose sisters had married Marius and Sulla. Young Julius had already had two daughters with Aurelia, and in 100 BC they would have their only son – Gaius Julius Caesar (yes, that one!), the nephew to Gaius Marius who would go on to deliver the death blow to the terminally ill republic.
But that is all still half a century away! But that is all still half a century away! Marius’ sixth consulship saw the demagogue Saturninus win election as tribune of the plebs, enacting agrarian law to share land among legionary veterans, further enhancing Marius’ reputation, and to for the senate to secure the price of grain so the poor would not be impacted by price fluctuations caused by famine. In order to secure these laws, he included in the bill that the senators had to swear a pledge of allegiance to uphold the law, or face exile and a heavy fine. Ever a man of principle, Metellus Numidicus remained defiant, had his slaves bring dozens of bags filled with silver to the senate to pay the fine, and went into voluntary exile in Rhodes. His son earnt the cognomen “Pius” for his staunch defence of his father, though it was in vain. Saturninus kept pursuing his Populare agenda, and eventually had one of his rivals murdered in public during the consular elections. In the resulting violence and unrest, the senate issued Marius with the ultimatum to quell the violence, as he was the Consul. Keen not to further alienate the Senate and jeopardise his seventh consulship, Marius blocked off the Capitoline Hill which the radicals were on and besieged them, capturing them and locking them in the Senate House to keep them alive. However, Optimate supporters climbed onto the roof, removed the tiles and threw them onto Saturninus and followers, killing them all.
Marius spent some time relaxing at a coastal villa with his wife Julia Caesar, having spent little time with her during the wars of the last decade. When he awoke feeling sluggish one morning, she burst to tears at the sight of a great man unable to move the left side of his body – Gaius Marius had had a stroke. Although he was soon at work making his recovery, his stroke meant that Marius would be unable to contest the next consular election. His star appeared to be on the wane throughout most of the decade, with his opponents even blocking his election to Censor (a post which requires to holder to have been a Consul). Marius opposed the return from exile of Metellus Numidicus, though was ignored as his former commander and rival was welcomed back to Rome, only to die at home soon after.
While Marius was fading, Sulla was in the ascendancy. Returning to Rome, he now found his path clear to be elected as Praetor urbanus – a blessing and a curse, to hold the post in Rome. While he would not have to leave the city and could spend time with his family, he would not be able to amass a personal fortune from overseas (as Marius had done in Hispania), and thus secure his independence from Marius, rather the continuing to effectively be his client. His chance would come in the next year though, when he was elected to the governorship of Cilicia as Propraetor in 96 BC.
Having recovered well from his stroke but now lacking political clout, Marius decided to take an expedition to Pontus. The Senate had received ominous reports of the resurgent kingdom, with King Mithridates VI “Eupator” seeing his kingdom (in central north Turkey) extend across most of the Euxine (Black) Sea. He had also installed his son as the king of Cappadocia, something the Romans could not tolerate. While Rome was not intent on conquering and occupying foreign lands at this stage, it was determined to maintain a balance of various kingdoms and vassals, ensuring there was not one that could rise to prominence and threaten Rome.
Mithridates was a fairly typical eastern king, continuing traditions such as having others prostrate before him, having many wives, and taking his sister as a wife. He was tall, powerfully built man who dressed in a lion skin and believed himself a descendant of Hercules. The Pontic royal court also had the treachery and intrigue of eastern royal families, where it was common for claimants and kings to resort to patricide, fratricide and matricide to ensure their position, even going so far as to kill their own children if they became rebellious. After surviving one such royal purge in his youth, Mithridates had fled to the mountains and survived with tribes, during which he ingested a wide variety of poisons to make himself immune to poisoning. He also would disappear from the court and travel incognito, including spending time in Rome’s Asia Province (south west Turkey) to get an idea of what these fabled warriors were capable of. What he found was a land ripe for revolt, with an oppressive Roman governorship allowing greedy tax farmers to exploit the population. The Senate would tender contracts for tax collecting, so were unconcerned about how much was collected, or how. For example, if the census said Asia Province had 500,000 people would could pay a silver talent each, the Senate would expect 500,000 silver talents, or more, and would sell the contract to whoever bid the highest. It was then down to the contractor to ensure they collected this tax, and made a profit, with little recourse for those who were exploited – as expected, this often led to revolts and unrest.
Rome had Bithynia (on the Hellespont) included as a “Friend of Rome”, which put Pontus in a difficult position as an enemy of Bithynia, though not wanting to provoke the ire of Rome. Hearing of Mithridates’ military build-up, Marius toured through Greece with his family, the arrived at Cilicia where he left them and travelled on with just a guide and small escort to Cappadocia. Arriving after a great battle, he displayed the typical Roman haughtiness in orders Mithridates to bury the enemy dead, rather than let them fester. He then demanded Mithridates return to Pontus, which he scoffed at, saying he could kill Marius there and then, and nobody would know. Marius replied saying that if he dead, there would be legions in Pontus before winter. Mithridates was cowed by the threat and returned to Pontus, but did not dismiss his ambition.
When the Senate heard that Mithridates had installed his son as Cappadocian king following Marius’ departure, and had agreed an alliance with King Tigranes of Armenia, Sulla’s governorship provided him with the opportunity he needed to strike out. With his young son accompanying him, for his wife Lia Caesar had committed suicide, Sulla hastily pulled together four auxiliary legions in Asia Province, and marched these into Cappadocia, where Mithridates had an army almost 100,000 strong. Undeterred by the numerical odds, especially given his service with such odds against him when fighting the Cimbri, Sulla ordered Mithridates to return to Pontus and return the old king to the throne. So awestruck was Mithridates by Roman organisation and building, he agreed, though was becoming increasingly embittered.
Sulla then moved to check Tigranes and prevent him from realising his alliance with Mithridates. He marched his army east, through Armenia, paying for what his army used in a clear show that this was no marauding force. Sulla marched his forces east across the Euphrates, and then deep into Persia to the banks of the Tigris, the furthest east a Roman army had ever been. Tigranes ran to his Parthian masters, and on the banks of the Euphrates, Sulla became the first Roman magistrate to meet with a Parthian emissary, Orobazus. Sulla’s scheming saw him position his seat so that he would look down on his guests, a slight for which Orobazus would later be executed. The two sides agreed that the Euphrates would serve as the boundary betwixt Roman and Parthia spheres of influence, and agreed a peace – somewhat ironic given that, at an intermittent 681 years, the Roman-Persian wars would become the third longest-running conflict in human history. A Parthian prophet told Sulla at this meeting that he would die “at the heigh of his fame and fortune” – a prophecy that he would hold dear for the rest of his life. Having driving Tigranes from Cappadocia, returned the rightful king, seen himself declared “imperator” in the field by his troops, Sulla returned to Rome jubilant – and rich – in 93 BC. He aligned himself with the Optimates, in opposition to Marius’ Populares. Sulla would soon be grateful that his son had gone with him, for after returning to Rome, the child fell ill with fever and died – causing his father to become increasingly reclusive, evading the chance to capitalise on his new success.
Throughout this time in Rome, Marcus Livius Drusus, who had survived the massacre at Arausio, had been living with Young Caepio, each taking the other’s sister as his wife. Drusus had also struck up an unlikely friendship with Silo of the Marsi, who had been with him at the battle. The result of the battle, and subsequent mistreatment of the Italians who had shared Rome’s anguish in defeat and joy in victory, had moved him to a political position of wanting to roll our Roman citizenship widely. Caepio was vehemently opposed to this, as were most of the Optimates, wanting to keep it exclusively for Romans. The two feel apart when Drusus learnt that Caepio had been beating his wife, and Caepio then left to invest his father’s stolen Gold of Telosa into setting up discreet foundry towns in Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italia).
Gravitating towards the Populares, Drusus was backed by Marius in winning election as tribune of the plebs. Despite much opposition, he began to push through a series of laws that would culminate in general enfranchisement for all of Italy – giving Roman citizenship to all Italians. Italia had a mix of classes, with Roman citizenship the highest – citizens would always have a trial (in theory), could not be crucified, and enjoyed many other benefits. Beneath them, as a half-way house, was the Latin rights which extended to many. Most though, including prominent tribes like the Maris and Samnites, were just Italian allies. They may provide the bulk of Rome’s armies, but they were overtaxed and got a poor return of war spoils. There was much resentment, and a feeling they should be classed as Roman citizens. Citizenship, and Latin rights, had been rolled out to many towns, though there had been a slowdown in this following the Second Punic War, when many tribes defected to Hannibal.
Drusus was preparing to make his grand announcement to the tribunate, confident they would overrule the Senate and force through his bill for general enfranchisement. He had faced opposition, particularly when it was discovered he planned to make all of Italia his clients, and Young Caepio and Metellus Pius were vociferous in their opposition, desperate to keep Roman citizenship a closed club. Harsh measures had been taken out against the Italians by his opponents, particularly when they falsely detailed themselves as Roman citizens en masse in the latest census, with those who had forged their citizenship flogged and fined. Silo and the Italian allies looked on expectantly, optimistic that he could see the bill through and ensure a peaceful resolution to their quandary. On the day before Drusus was due to present his bill, he was assassinated in a private gathering at his home. The Optimates were delighted – Roman citizenship would not be rolled out, and the sheep farmers of Italia would remember their place. The Italian allies were devastated, as their hopes for peaceful reconciliation with Rome had been dashed. There now remained only one path open for them to achieve equality – war.
Niciun comentariu:
Trimiteți un comentariu